Much
attention has been directed toward the impact of NYS on society, its potential
contribution to promoting social responsibility and cohesive community, and the
benefits to the recipients of service programs. Less is known about the effect
of NYS on the participants themselves. The Fifth Global Conference therefore devoted
a session to discussion of NYS as a psycho-social process that promotes healthy
personal growth and individual development. Presenters placed NYS within
a theoretical framework that describes the physical, social and psychological
needs of the individual during the process of maturation. Although speakers from
various countries described diverse approaches to the timing, duration and context
of service, there was consensus that NYS provides unique opportunities for young
people to develop efficacy and self-esteem and to strengthen the interpersonal
skills and empathy necessary for healthy personal growth. The plenary discussion
called for research on the impact of NYS on its participants. Discussants stressed
the need for quality trained staff who can serve as effective role models, both
in service learning programs in schools and universities and in programs outside
of the formal school system. They also confirmed the importance of NYS in creating
a balance between individualism and social responsibility. Here follows
a summary of the conference session on NYS as a psycho-social process.
Discussions about
National Youth Service (NYS) frequently mention the benefits to the individual,
no less than the benefit to the community and society. This is true for the individual's
development as a citizen as well as for his/her national identity (when the service
is "national") or communal/ethnic identity (when the service is community-oriented). Perhaps
even more significant is the contribution of NYS to the psychological development,
per se, emotional, social and cognitive, and the self-identity of the young person
who serves in NYS. I. The Timing Several factors
converge in this process. There are, in psychological terms, critical periods
in the development of an individual's personality. These are defined periods,
"windows of time," during which certain kinds of exposures and experiences have
a particularly strong impact. In the course of an individual's development there
are several such "windows." The classic example is described by Erikson's
model of eight stages of psycho-social development (Erikson, 1950). According
to Erikson, the individual faces a life crisis in each stage of his/her psycho-social
development. Such crises may have favorable or unfavorable outcomes, and the resolution
of the life crisis will determine, for example, his/her ability to hope and trust
in the future (as opposed to fear of the future and basic suspicion), to initiate
activities, and to develop a sense of self control and self esteem. NYS
occurs, in terms of Erikson's model, at the end of the adolescence stage and the
beginning of the early adulthood stage. Favorable outcomes of formative experiences
during these periods may include "the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated
person and to sustain loyalties," and "the ability to commit oneself, one's identity,
to others" (Gardner, 1982). If adolescence is a time of searching inward
for personal identity, autonomy, and values - early adulthood is a time of looking
outward to the external tasks of launching a career, a marriage, and perhaps a
family. NYS serves as a bridge between these two critical periods, and a positive
experience in NYS creates a positive transition. Maslow offers an
additional perspective on psycho-social development, framed in terms of needs
rather than chronology. This is known as Maslow's "hierarchy of needs" (1968).
Here too we find that the young person encounters the period of NYS at an important
stage - that of attempting to meet psychological needs when fundamental needs
(such as food, shelter, and the need for safety) have been satisfied. Among
the psychological needs in Maslow's model are "esteem needs"-to achieve, to be
competent, to gain approval and recognition, and the need for love, acceptance
and belonging. Only when these needs have been satisfied can a person begin to
address the need for self-actualization. Yet another model of development
describe the age bracket of NYS as the "launching phase" (Duvall, 1985). This
is when children leave the parental nest to exercise independence and autonomy
- even though they have not yet reached economic, social nor even emotional independence.
Typically, at this stage, youngsters would strive to perform "adult" tasks - while
still preserve the option of returning to the "safe nest" (Barnhill and Longo,
1978). II. Psychological Characteristics of NYS What
are the characteristics of NYS, its framework and setting, that make it such a
psychologically formative experience? Part of the answer lies in the juxtaposition
of seemingly contradictory processes and situations that offer a range of opportunities
and challenges for personal growth: The first pair of contradictory characteristics
are 'independence' and 'group life'. On the one hand NYS frequently involves leaving
home and engagement in situations and settings that allow - indeed demand - greater
personal autonomy. On the other hand, NYS, by its inherent teamwork nature, requires
the individual to take part in group efforts, to closely affiliate and interact
with others and to identify with common goals. The second pair of contradictory
characteristics of NYS are that it demands from participants that they experience
both difficulties, and success and accomplishment. NYS can generate the challenges
of having to cope with unfamiliar situations, pressure, and sometimes significant
mental stress. Yet along with the difficulties, NYS is usually also characterized
by successful achievements and opportunities for accomplishment. The third
set of contradictory aspects of NYS is 'the focus on altruism' and 'the high level
of appreciation and reinforcement'. During their service NYS volunteers are allowed
to focus on action, giving and attentiveness to others, but at the same time the
NYS volunteer receives expressions of gratitude and appreciation. Two other
characteristics of NYS also contribute to its positive psychological impact. Firstly,
the NYS period is predominantly characterized by the demand on the volunteer to
assume responsibility and make decisions, to fulfill expectations and obligations,
and to exercise self discipline while serving the needs of children, adults, or
the elderly. S/he is frequently called upon to function as a responsible adult
in inter-generational settings, and sometimes as a figure of authority. This experience
stands in stark contrast to the "moratorium" period during which the young person
effectively sheds his/her responsibilities and functions as a child, sometimes
until the age of thirty. Lastly, NYS is a period characterized by mutual acquaintance
between the sexes, in the context of joint action, mutual support, and personal
revelation. Unlike the casual, ritualized meetings between the sexes in pubs,
discotheques, etc., the encounter between the sexes in the framework of NYS is
a process of ongoing discovery, without facades or posturing. These are
some of the universal characteristics of NYS. Intensive exposure to these opportunities
and challenges over the course of a year or more, during a critical period in
the participant's psycho-social development, often results in extremely significant
and usually quite apparent transformations in the personal identity of young men
and women. Anyone who has been involved for a long time with NYS volunteers will
certainly have been struck by the apparent impact that a year or so of NYS-type
service has on a volunteer's personality, attitudes, maturity and identity.
III. The Psycho-Social Effects of NYS The positive
psychological influences of NYS are many and important. Some of the typical outcomes
are outlined below: Independent Identity. In Erikson's developmental
terms, the formation of an independent identity that is both unique and integrated
is one of the favorable outcomes of the adolescence period. Sustained Loyalty.
Again in Erikson's terminology, this is the ability to sustain loyalty to others,
including friends, community, and society, as well as loyalty to oneself - in
terms of one's values, faith and an articulated world view. Commitment.
The ability to invest energy and effort in a sustained commitment to oneself and
to others. Generosity and sense of giving. One of the most prevalent outcomes
of an intensive involvement in NYS is the nurturing of altruism, generosity of
spirit and giving of oneself to others. This stands in contrast to trends of competition,
self-centeredness and "self-fulfillment", which are normative in modern society. A
Sense of Citizenship and Affiliation. NYS shapes and strengthens the participant's
sense of citizenship, solidarity and engagement in the commonweal. Self-Confidence
and Self-Efficacy. The participants of NYS normally develop self confidence and
faith in their ability to accomplish tasks and missions not within their previous
scope of achievement. This is exactly what Albert Bandura meant in his "self-efficacy"
concept. (1977; 1982). According to Bandura, self-efficacy is important to personality
development because it greatly affects whether or not a person will even try to
accomplish challenging tasks. The NYS period provides many opportunities for its
participants to try - and often to succeed - in such tasks. Locus-of-Control.
This concept was recently developed from theories within social psychology that
deal with the person/situation interaction, and one part of the concept defines
an individual's generalized belief about their own control over events. Individuals
with an internal locus of control are more likely to believe that events and outcomes
are consequence of their own behavior, whereas individuals with an external locus
of control tend to see outcomes and consequences as more dependent on other people
or chance. (Rotter, 1966; 1975). Evidently the experience of NYS enhances its
participants' internal locus of control, hence generating in them a sense of mastery
over circumstances and their consequences. Leadership. All of the above
enables young NYS participants to realize their leadership potential. Psychological
maturity, social skills and the situational opportunities of NYS combine to create
the conditions of leadership: confidence in one's ability to influence others,
to set goals and achieve them, and to enlist others in one's vision. Social
and Emotional Intelligence. In recent years, the notion that there are different
forms of intelligence that, unlike 'basic' intelligence, are known to be affected
by experience and development (Sternberg, 1990), has evolved dramatically (e.g.
Gardner, 1983). Evidently, the NYS experience can contribute to the development
of what is currently termed "social and emotional intelligence". While social
intelligence has traditionally been conceptualized in terms of interpersonal astuteness
and social adaptation (Endler and Summerfeldt, 1995), emotional intelligence has
been defined as "a subset of social intelligence that involves the ability to
monitor one's own and other's feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them,
and to use this information to guide one's thinking and actions." As the NYS participant
learns to adapt to new and unfamiliar situations, whilst coming into contact with
a wide range of people, they develop the capacity for empathy, non-verbal awareness,
and a sense of the commonality of the human condition. Such traits enable the
healthy and mature person to recognize and accept complex realities and to function
effectively within them. Sexual Maturity. Such a nuanced approach contributes
not only to a healthy social personality but also to a healthy sexual maturity.
In NYS the young man and woman experience their peers of the opposite sex as multi-faceted
partners, co-workers, and friends. Thus, their sexual identity and attitudes may
avoid objectification of themselves and others as sexual objects; rather, they
are likely to develop respectful and appreciative attitudes towards the 'other
sex', along with a healthy sense of attractiveness and desirability. IV.
Summary This short overview has highlighted some of the
effects of NYS during a critical period in the participant's psycho-social development.
Of course many young people do not participate in any form of youth service, yet
they develop into healthy, balanced adults. Thus we know that the conditions for
positive psycho-social development are not specific, or limited, to NYS. Nevertheless,
the rise of intolerance, inter-ethnic conflict and alienation in virtually every
corner of our planet teaches us that NYS still has an important role to fill.
The structure and essence of NYS offer uniquely intensive, constructive and appropriate
conditions-ideal for nurturing active citizens, empathetic neighbors, and adults
with a complex and inclusive world-view. NYS not only materializes such potential.
It creates it. A truly responsible society should give
its young the opportunity to understand their social rights and responsibilities
and to enhance their potential. To create ways of helping the young to develop
their abilities and responsibilities is to benefit both young people and society
as a whole. Society today is in need of greater justice, cohesiveness, and
stability. Youth participation in society can lead to benefits to society and
help meet these needs, particularly in areas such as education, social exclusion,
and the environment - areas in which young people often hold an interest. However
youth participation in society, particularly through volunteer schemes such as
NYS, doesn't only benefit society, it also benefits the young people themselves. The
training component of NYS, where this is provided, not only motivates young people
and increases their impact but also develops them. Training allows young people
to develop valuable skills, including - but not exclusively - those that are used
for their jobs. General skills that are used by young people living in groups
such as communication skills, the ability to work in a team, and the ability to
share with others are also developed, often through specific training. Furthermore,
as well as providing an opportunity for skills training to be developed, NYS can
also serve to allow young people to develop their abilities and knowledge merely
through working within the public sphere. For voluntary work to be a success,
it must have the ability to stir both the imagination and the enthusiasm of the
young. Strangely however, although a number of benefits accrue to young people
who participate in voluntary service, this is not to say that young people will
participate in NYS for this reason. Even were young people to accept the claim
that they benefit on a personal level from participation in voluntary service,
they are still more interested in the content of the program itself. This means
that young people must have creative input into their own volunteer schemes so
that these schemes can truly be what young people want. Young people are able
to diagnose the needs and problems of their own communities and, based on the
information available to them, will be able to plan and try out actions aimed
at overcoming the problems they have identified. This level of engagement not
only ensures youth participation on NYS programs, but also gives young people
a deep and valuable sense of worth. In addition to the value of their actual
contributions, the great worth to young people of the experience they acquire
by participating in voluntary work initiatives has now attained wide and consensual
acknowledgement from - amongst others - hospitals, universities, councils and
even companies. This can aid young people in the job market. We have seen
above that offering the young a wide range of voluntary contribution opportunities
not only recognizes the importance of their enthusiasm and dedication, but also
promotes their social and psychological development. In a world where the young
are frequently seen as a problem, to invest in them in this way harnesses their
energy, capabilities, and determination in order to secure a better future. National Youth
Service in Argentina consists mostly of service learning in schools and Universities.
Service learning does not include all volunteering or community service by young
people. Rather, it is defined by the Argentinean Ministry of Education as students'
community service, where, amongst other things, the following conditions are met: *
Activities are planned to provide both a valuable service and learning that is
both formal and testable. * Service activities are clearly linked with curriculum
contents. * Young people provide a real answer to a real need, and their
service is asked for or appreciated by recipients. Service by young people
is important not only to meet communal needs, but also in order to educate young
people to be active citizens and better people. Service
as a way of learning "Learning to do, learning to be,
learning to learn and learning to live together" are, according to UNESCO,
the main goals for 21st Century education to reach. We have enough evidence to
affirm that service learning is an effective methodology to reach these goals. We
learn to do by doing:
It is impossible to
teach how to play football, baseball or any other sport sitting in a classroom.
Even if you teach the rules, nobody will learn how to play. For years, we have
been trying to teach young people to be good citizens by giving them only the
rules, with tragic consequences. By giving young students the opportunity to serve
their communities in a concrete way we provide them with a unique opportunity
to be 'in the field', and to learn how to do what needs to be done. Service-learning
helps students to be better persons: * We have
evidence in different cultural environments that service has been the most effective
way to prevent school violence and develop positive attitudes in young people. *
Practice of Values: We are convinced that practicing values is far better than
talking about them. Young people do not want to be lectured at - they are willing
to look for, and experiment by, themselves. Young people learn values while giving
service - acting as caring, compassionate and helpful people. *
Positive Role Models: Youth is a time of changing personal identity, and role
models are fundamental in this process. The media offers young people role models
such as actors, singers, and sports stars. In contrast service learning gives
young people the opportunity to be in touch with caring adults: people engaged
in alleviating social problems, who practice what they preach. This is more important
than ever as many young people receive inadequate parenting. Learning
to learn through service * Developing Skills: Employers
want governments to prepare young people for work. Therefore young people need
to develop good communication skills, problem solving ability, team-working ability
and a strong sense of responsibility: all things that may easily be developed
through a good service-learning program. * Self-esteem and
Learning: young people need to experience that some of the things that they do
really mean something to somebody. For disadvantaged youths this can provide a
rare opportunity to help others instead of asking for help. This can raise self-esteem,
which is closely connected to academic success. In Argentina the change in self-image
has been shown to impact directly upon the academic success of the poorest students
- in poor neighborhoods schools that run service-learning projects get 40% better
results than those that do not. Learning to Live
Together * Bridges over the Social Gap: School
in Argentina used to be a place where rich and poor met, but in recent years the
children of the richest families have come to attend exclusive schools, located
within their fenced in and exclusive neighborhoods. Service learning is critical
to allow young people growing up in this context to come to know reality, to realize
what advantages they have, and sense the social responsibility that is implied
by their privileged situation. * Inter-cultural and Inter-generational
Activities: service learning gives young people the opportunity to interact with
different cultures and social environments. By taking part in inter-generational
activities young people can learn about historical events, other countries and
other cultures. Service learning: the sooner, the
better In Argentina service learning is possible
from kindergarten to university. All around the country, children from first to
sixth grade are planting trees in their cities, cultivating orchards and vegetable
gardens to give free food to students and their families, or even writing letters
demanding better public facilities. Seventh to ninth graders are able to develop
more sophisticated projects. For example young eighth-graders in the little town
of Ramona, Santa Fe, discovered in the school lab that the water they were drinking
was poisoned with arsenic. By the time they arrived in twelfth grade they had
ensured that the province provided their city with a drinking water plant, had
the local administration build a new water system, and had organized (with the
local hospital and two national universities) a health research and prevention
plan to treat people with symptoms of arsenic poisoning. There can be little doubt
that involvement in such projects has significant impact on the psycho-social
development of young people. As China has opened up following market reform, Shanghai
has become a leading city in the country's economic development. This development
has created a need for greater efficiency, achievement, and competition. In Shanghai
there is also a need to build a better infrastructure, and urban environment.
At the same time, these developments make it as important as ever that society
is a place where love, understanding, fairness, harmony, friendship, and mutualism
can flourish. This is both for the need of society as a whole and for the individuals
that, together, make up society. One consequence of reform in China is that
individuals are given more 'individual space'. That is to say that individuals
have more time within which to do what they want, as opposed to doing what was
instructed by the wider society. The freedom to spend free time as one wishes
is a pre-condition for volunteering. There can be no volunteering without free
time. With the possibility of volunteering, especially amongst young people, a
number of societal and psychological needs can be addressed. According
to psychological theory, people have a number of different types of need, both
physical and psychological. Individuals in isolation cannot meet their own psychological
needs; society is needed to satisfy the psychological needs of individuals. At
the same time that society can help meet the individual's psychological needs,
the individual's actions can help to satisfy the needs of society. One of the
best ways in which this can be done is through volunteering programs. As
society develops economically, psychological needs become more important as physical
needs, increasingly, are met. As a person's material aims in life have been realized,
he or she may attempt to find moral, ideological, and personal satisfaction through
a youth volunteering program. This allows a person to feel that they are helping
others, and to 'purify' their own soul. Working for the good of others allows
an individual to attempt to perfect their own moral behavior. Altruistic behavior
brings the needs of society and the individual closer together, which, again,
is of psychological benefit. In addition to nurturing the moral sentiment
and feelings of social responsibility in young people, volunteering programs can
also promote other types of psychological development. Participants in youth volunteering
programs broaden their outlook, gain greater experience of life, and improve their
social and professional skills as well as their scientific and cultural knowledge.
This psychological development is necessary to drive economic development. In
the case of Shanghai, volunteering programs have led to a concentration of the
first-grade human resources that are necessary to drive development. As development
continues - and it is of course helped by the work done by volunteers - material
needs are met more easily. This leads to an even greater need for volunteer programs
to meet psychological needs. In Shanghai there are 400,000 volunteers giving
their time in youth programs. These programs, which have, by now, become a social
norm develop the infrastructure of the city, help meet the psychological needs
of individuals, and shape individuals well equipped to drive the economic development
of the city.
Formal education impacts in some way
upon nearly all young people. A development of the educational system to incorporate
some of the positive elements of National Youth Service programs, especially their
psycho-social benefits, is desirable. Additionally, National Youth Service programs
ought to recognize that they exist within a wider setting that incorporates other
educational and social avenues. Within many educational settings there is
a 'practical', or youth service, element. In Costa Rica this is widespread at
the university level, with significant state involvement. Although sometimes service
or social action objectives are not written explicitly in course programs, this
does not mean that they are not met there. So although youth service and 'youth
service philosophy' (or outlook) already exist within the formal educational system,
they could be taught more formally within this setting. Academic 'practicals'
(or hands on learning sessions) at the university level are one appropriate vehicle
for this educational development; the school classroom is another. Where youth
service programs only exist at the university level this should be extended to
the school level. Professors and schoolteachers must be seriously involved
in teaching a 'youth service philosophy'. For this to take place it will be necessary
to provide formal training to teachers and professors. In order to teach
'youth service philosophy', a different pedagogy must be implemented. This pedagogy
must allow the student to: -Come to know his/her personal value system -Learn
principles, and then practice and internalize them -Develop his/her critical
thinking -Develop practical skills -Do things with others (rather
than for them) -Respect cultural differences -Recognize his/her leadership
role in solving local or national problems -Recognize the importance of
working for a better world, with social justice, peace and democracy. This
change within the education system would obviously lead to a corresponding change
in the psycho-social development of most young people. In order to have
a greater effect, the 'youth service philosophy' with all of its benefits ought
to be articulated to a greater number of institutions by traditional NYS organizations.
Educational institutions are just one, crucial, example - NGOs, community groups
etc should also be targeted. This would allow society to be developed in a positive
way that involved young people. * There is a need for serious research into the
impact of NYS on youth development. There is not, at present, sufficient documentation
or evaluation of program effects. This is complicated however by the lack of agreement
over the desired impact of NYS on psycho-social development. It will be hard to
establish a unified research agenda where there is no agreement on what outcomes
ought to be looked for. * Participants in voluntary NYS programs are self-selecting.
They are also likely to be middle class. It is therefore not clear that just because
there is a strong psycho-social effect upon these participants, a standard sample
of young people would yield the same results. Youth volunteers might be more likely
to change and develop, more open-minded, and perhaps more adventurous than their
peers. * Where NYS is compulsory de facto or de jure, this can affect the
development of participants. Volunteers enter NYS in an inquiring mood, with the
willingness to change and develop. Compulsion might well alter this. * Not
all service is the same. Some so called 'service' projects, particularly within
school service-learning projects, don't provide any real service. For this reason
it is unrealistic to expect the same level of psycho-social impact in these cases
as with NYS projects where significant service is provided over a year or more.
Not only the length and quality of service but also the kind of service given
could have an impact upon the experience for young people. Those who volunteer
with old people will have a different experience from those who teach, who will
have a different experience again from those who are working in technology. *
The philosophy of the individual NYS program will effect the psycho-social development
of the participants. Different programs have different attitudes towards the role
of the individual, society, and so on and so forth. This will clearly have an
impact on the participant. * The quality of staff involved in NYS programs
alters the impact upon the development of participants. Staff are, in many instances,
expected to act as role models, mentors and counselors. Not all staff can do this
to the same degree. Good training can enable staff to serve the needs of young
people more effectively, ensuring that their psycho-social development is more
positive. * Greater psycho-social impact might be possible if more information
and experience was shared between those running NYS and service-learning programs.
The exchange should not be limited merely to positive experience, but should also
address past failures.* * Within service-learning projects, in order to
have the required impact upon young people, a separate faculty should be employed
to oversee these projects and ensure that they are successful. * For those
interested in service-learning: www.nylc.org www.eyc.me.gov.ar and www.unesco.org/youth "I thought the presentation was exceptionally lucid and digestible.
It will be prescribed reading for all my staff" "I believe that the psycho
social process must be further researched. This element requires that the teacher,
professor, supervisor etc have a previous training, or at least a previous knowledge
of the matter" "The papers had much in them that could stimulate response
in working groups. The service learning session was lively and well attended,
although it could have been positioned differently in the overall conference" |